Trafficking of children
From
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Trafficking
of children is
a form of human trafficking and is defined as the "recruitment,
transportation, transfer, harboring, and/or receipt” of a child for the purpose
of exploitation. Though statistics regarding the magnitude of child trafficking
are difficult to obtain, the International Labour
Organization estimates that 1.2 million children are trafficked each
year. The trafficking of children has been internationally recognized as a
major human rights violation, one that exists in every region of the world.
Yet, it is only within the past decade that the prevalence and ramifications of
this practice have risen to international prominence, due to a dramatic
increase in research and public action. A variety of potential solutions have
accordingly been suggested and implemented, which can be categorized as four
types of action: broad protection, prevention, law enforcement, and victim
assistance. Major international documents regarding child trafficking include
the 1989 U.N. Convention
on the Rights of the Child, the 1999 I.L.O. Worst
Forms of Child Labour Convention, and the 2000 U.N. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons,
especially Women and Children.
Defining child trafficking
The
first major international legislation concerning child trafficking is part of
the 2000 United Nations Palermo protocols, titled
the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons,
especially Women and Children. Article 3(a) of this document defines
child trafficking as the “recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring
and/or receipt” of a child for the purpose of exploitation.[1] The definition for child trafficking given here
applies only to cases of trafficking that are transnational and/or involve
organized criminal groups; in spite of this, child trafficking is now typically
recognized well outside of these parameters.[2] The International Labour
Organization expands upon this definition by asserting that movement
and exploitation are key aspects of child trafficking.[2] The definition of "child" used here is
that listed in the 1989 U.N. Convention
on the Rights of the Child which states, "a child means every
human being below the age of 18 years, unless, under the law applicable to the
child, majority is attained earlier."[3] The distinction outlined in this definition is
important, because some countries have chosen to set the "age of
majority" lower than 18, thus influencing exactly what legally constitutes
child trafficking.[2]
Related legal instruments
Many
international, regional, and national instruments have been implemented that
relate to and affect the practice of child trafficking. These tools have been
used to define what legally constitutes trafficking of children, such that
appropriate legal action can be taken against those who engage in and promote
this practice. These legal instruments are called by a variety of terms,
including conventions, protocols, memorandums, joint actions, recommendations,
and declarations. The most significant tools are listed below:[2]
International human rights instruments
These
legal instruments were developed by the United Nations in an effort to outline the international human
rights of human beings and, more specifically, children.
- U.N. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948[4]
- U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989[3]
Labour and migration treaties
The
trafficking of children often involves both labour and migration. As such,
these international frameworks clarify instances in which these practices are
illegal.
- I.L.O. Minimum Age Convention, 1973[5]
- I.L.O. Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999[6]
- I.L.O. Forced Labor Convention, 1930[8]
- I.L.O. Migrant Workers Convention (Revised), 1949[9]
- United Nations Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, 1990[10]
Trafficking-specific instruments
- Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, 2000[1]
- The Recommended Principles and Guidelines on Human Rights and Human Trafficking, 2002[11]
Regional instruments
A
variety of regional instruments have also been developed to guide countries in
decisions regarding child trafficking. Below are some of the major instruments,
though many others exist:[2]
- Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (Treaty series No. 197), 2005
- Communication to the European Parliament and the Council COM(2005) 514 Final
- Multilateral cooperation agreement to combat trafficking in persons, especially women and children, in West and Central Africa, 2006
- Mekong subregional cooperation agreement to fight human trafficking (COMMIT), 2004
National law
National
laws pertaining to child trafficking continue to develop worldwide, based on
the international principles that have been established. Anti-trafficking
legislation has been lauded as critical by the United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking,
because it ensures that traffickers and trafficking victims are treated accordingly:
for example, "if migration laws are used to pursue traffickers, it is
often the case that the victims too are prosecuted as illegal migrants, whereas
if there is a specific category of ‘trafficker’ and ‘trafficked person,’ then
it is more likely that the victim will be treated as such."[2] The existence of national laws regarding child
trafficking also enables trafficking victims and/or their families to take
appropriate civil action.[2]
Types of child trafficking
Forced labour
See
also: Child labour
Forced
labour is a form of child trafficking. In fact, the end goal of child
trafficking is often forced labour.[2] Forced child labour refers specifically to children
used for labour who are under the stipulated minimum age, usually 14 at the
lowest.[12] UNICEF estimates that, in 2011, 150
million children aged 5-14 in developing countries were involved in child
labour.[13] Within this number, the International Labour
Organization reports that most child laborers - 60% - work in
agriculture.[14] However, the International Labour
Organization also estimates that 115 million children are engaged in
hazardous work, such as the sex or drug trade.[14] Overall, child labor can take many forms, and
includes domestic servitude, exploitation in agriculture, service, and
manufacturing industries, sexual exploitation, use of children in the armed
forces and drug trades, and child begging.[2] In terms of global trends, the International Labour Organization
estimates that in 2004-2008, there was a 3% reduction in the incidence of child
labor; this stands in contrast to a previous I.L.O report which
found that in 2000-2004, there was a 10% reduction in child labor.[14] Thus, the International Labour
Organization contends that, globally, child labour is slowly
declining. Exempt from this statistic is sub-Saharan Africa, where the number
of child laborers has remained relatively constant: 1 in 4 children aged 5-17
work in this region.[14] Another major global trend concerns the number of
child laborers in the 15-17 age group: in the past five years, a 20% increase
in the number of these child laborers has been reported.[14]
The Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and
Child Pornography is a protocol of the Convention on
the Rights of the Child, formally adopted by the United Nations in 2000.[15] Essentially, this protocol formally requires states
to prohibit the sale of children, child prostitution, and child pornography.[15] According to the International Labour
Organization, sexual exploitation of children includes all of the
following practices and activities:[16]
- "The use of girls and boys in sexual activities remunerated in cash or in kind (commonly known as child prostitution) in the streets or indoors, in such places as brothels, discotheques, massage parlours, bars, hotels, restaurants, etc."
- "The trafficking of girls and boys and adolescents for the sex trade"
- "Child sex tourism"
- "The production, promotion and distribution of pornography involving children"
- "The use of children in sex shows (public or private)"
Though
measuring the extent of this practice is difficult due to its criminal and
covert nature, the International Labour
Organization estimates that there are as many as 1.8 million
children sexually trafficked worldwide, while UNICEF's 2006 State of the
World's Children Report reports this number to be 2 million.[17][18] The International Labor
Organization has found that girls involved in other forms of child
labour - such as domestic service or street vending - are at the highest risk
of being pulled into commercial child sex trafficking.[17] A variety of sources, including the I.L.O, and scholars
Erin Kunze and D.M. Hughes, also contend that the increased use and
availability of the Internet has served as a major resource for traffickers,
ultimately increasing the incidence of child sex trafficking.[17][19][20] In fact, in 2009, Illinois Sheriff Thomas J. Dart
sued the owners of Craigslist, a popular online classifieds
website, for its "allowance" and "facilitation" of
prostitution, particularly in children.[21][22] In response to public and legal pressure, Craigslist has since blocked all access to its "Adult
Services" section.[23]
Children in armed forces
Main
article: Military use of children
The Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict
is a protocol of the Convention on
the Rights of the Child, formally adopted by the United Nations in 2000.[24] Essentially, the protocol states that while
volunteers below the age of 18 can voluntarily join the armed forces, they
cannot be conscripted. As the Protocol reads, "State parties shall take all feasible
measures to ensure that member of their armed forces who have not attained the
age of 18 years do not take a direct part in hostilities."[24] Despite this, the International Labour
Organization estimates that "tens of thousands" of girls
and boys are currently forcibly enlisted in the armed forces in at least 17
countries around the world.[25] Children conscripted into the armed forces can then
be used in three distinct ways:[26][27]
- Direct roles in hostilities (combat roles)
- Supporting roles (such as messengers or spies)
- For political advantage (such as for propaganda purposes)
Recent
research conducted by the Coalition to
Stop the Use of Child Soldiers has also noted that girl soldiers
must be uniquely recognized, in that they are especially vulnerable to acts of
sexual violence.[27] The incidence of child soldiers has become
especially relevant in popular culture following the Kony 2012 movement, which aims to arrest Joseph Kony, a Ugandan war criminal who is responsible for the
trafficking of thousands of child soldiers and sex slaves.[28]
Children in drug trades
Children
are also used in drug trades in all regions of the world.[2] Specifically, children are often trafficked into
exploitation as either drug couriers or dealers, and then 'paid' in drugs, such
that they become addicted and further entrapped.[2] Due to the illicit nature of drug trafficking,
children who are apprehended are often treated as criminals, when in reality
they are often the ones in need of legal assistance.[2] While comprehensive worldwide statistics regarding
the prevalence of this practice are unknown, several useful regional studies
have been conducted. For example, the I.L.O has recently
investigated the use of Afghan children in the heroin trade and child
involvement in the drug trades of Brazil.[29][30] Scholar Luke Dowdney specifically studied children
in the drug trade in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; he found that children involved in
the drug trades are at significantly higher risk of engaging in violence,
particularly murder.[31]
Child begging
Forced
child begging is a type of begging in which boys and girls under the age of
eighteen are forced to beg through psychological and physical coercion.[32] Begging is defined by the Buffalo Human Rights Law
Review as “the activity of asking for money as charity on the street.”[33] There is evidence to suggest that forced begging is
one industry that children are trafficked into, with a recent UNICEF
study reporting that thirteen percent of trafficking victims in South Eastern
Europe have been trafficked for the purpose of forced begging.[33] The United Nations protocol affirms that "the
recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of a child for the
purpose of exploitation shall be considered 'trafficking in persons' even if
this does not involve any of the means set forth in subparagraph (a) of this
article."[33] With this definition the transportation of a child
to an urban center for the purposes of begging constitutes trafficking
regardless of whether this process was enforced by a third party or family
member.[32] The severity of this form of trafficking is
starting to gain global recognition, with the International Organization for
Migration (IOM), the European Union, the International Labour
Organization (ILO), and the United Nations, among others, beginning to emphasize its
pertinence.[33] The European Union’s Brussels Declaration on
Preventing and Combating Trafficking includes child begging as one form of
trafficking, stating “trafficking in human beings is an abhorrent and worrying
phenomenon involving coercive sexual exploitation, labor exploitation in
conditions akin to slavery, exploitation in begging and juvenile delinquency as
well as domestic servitude.”[34] This issue is especially difficult to regulate
given that forced begging is often imposed by family members, with parental
power leveraged over a child to ensure that begging is carried out.[33]
Demographics
By
definition child begging occurs in persons younger than eighteen, though forced
begging has been found by UNICEF to exist among children as young as the age of
two.[32] Incidences of this practice have been recorded by
the World Bank in South and Central Asia, Europe, Latin America,
the Caribbean, the Middle East, and West Africa.[35]
Most
research, such as studies done by UNICEF, suggests that boys are much more
likely than girls to be trafficked for the purposes of begging; experts presume
this is because there is a greater female presence in trafficking for the
purposes of sexual exploitation.[36] In Albania, where forced begging is a common
practice, seventy percent of victims are male.[33]
While
concrete figures are difficult to determine, the International Labor
Organization (ILO) recently reported that there are at least 600,000 children
involved in forced begging.[37] The problem may be much more extensive, however,
with China’s Ministry of Civil Affairs reporting that as many as 1.5 million
children are forced into begging.[38] Additionally, a recent study done in Senegal by Human Rights Watch
projected that a minimum of 50,000 children within the country and neighboring
nations have been trafficked for the purposes of begging.[39] Begging is often the primary source of income for
street children in a number of countries, with a current study conducted by
UNICEF finding that 45.7% of children who work on the streets of Zimbabwe
engaged in begging, though there is no way of knowing whether it was through
forced means.[40]
Gang
networks involving forced begging have been found to occur in populations of
500 or greater.[41]
Causes
Economic factors
Forced
begging is a profitable practice in which exploiters are motivated by economic
incentives. The business structures of major rings of children trafficked for
the purpose of begging have been examined as comparable to a medium-size
business enterprise.[33] In the most severe cases networks of children
forced to beg may generate $30-40,000 USD for the profiteer.[42] Though family networks are not nearly as extensive,
a study conducted in Albania showed that a family with multiple children
begging can earn up to fifteen euros a day, an amount greater than the average
national teacher salary.[33] Anti-Slavery International asserts that because
this income is relatively high many families believe it is the best option
available given the lack of existing capabilities. Capability
deprivation, meaning the routine absence of adequate resources that serve in
facilitating opportunities, may account for cross-generational begging
practices within families.[43] UNICEF studies have found that begging is
especially prevalent among families in which parents are incapacitated in some
way, leading children to be the sole providers.[40]
Political factors
According
to the World Bank forced begging is most commonly found in the Middle East and
countries of West Africa, where laws prohibiting begging are scarce and heavy
regulation of trafficking absent.[35] In Zimbabwe, where child begging is especially
prominent, the United Nations has indicated many contradictions between the
Labour Act of Zimbabwe and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the
Child.[40] Many nations, such as Indonesia, have laws against
begging on the books, but the repercussions for such entail temporary
detainment and eventual release back onto the streets, which does little to
combat the issue.[44]
Cultural factors
There
are several cultural factors that support begging. In Europe begging is found
in a number of minority cultures, especially popular within Roma and nomadic
communities.[33] In Turkey familial networks of beggars have been
documented across three generations, making it deeply ingrained within their
survival schemas.[45] It is important to note that while these may be
culturally rooted practices, juvenile begging by way of familial pressure still
falls under the realm of forced begging.[33] The transport of children, even one’s own, for the
purposes of exploitation through begging is a form of trafficking outlined by
the United Nations. [33]
Another
cultural practice is the resolution of familial debts through the kidnapping
and exploitation of one of their children.[46]
Religious factors
Some
religious traditions teach achieving humility through begging; however, in
Senegal the World Bank has found that this Islamic religious custom has been
heavily exploited for the purposes of personal gain.[35] This malpractice is conducted by numerous marabouts, Islamic religious teachers whose role is to provide
boys between the ages of 7–17 with religious training. During this time it is
common to teach these boys, known as talibes, humility through begging.[47] In a number of Western African nations, however,
concerns have been raised about the exploitative nature of this tradition.[35] Cited incidences of abuse recorded by Human Rights
Watch include talibes being forced to beg for upwards of ten hours a day, being
beaten if they do not meet quotas set by marabouts, routinely denied adequate
food and water, and required to sleep outdoors.[48] It is highly debated by experts whether these young
men ultimately receive the Quranic education they were initially promised.[49] According to the United Nations definition even if
there exists some religious justification for begging the additional abuses
incurred fall under their condemned definition of trafficking, being that
"once it is established that deception, coercion, force or other
prohibited means were used, consent is irrelevant and cannot be used as a
defense."[33] Despite recent exposure surrounding the issue of
forced begging instated by marabouts, families continue to send their children
to these Quranic schools due to both a sense of religious obligation and a lack
of alternative educational opportunities.[50] Because these children are moving away from their
homes and into urban centers where they are exploited by third parties this
practice is purported by Human Rights Watch to be a human trafficking issue.[51]
General abuses
UNICEF
has found that children who are forced to beg by third parties are often
removed from their families, surrender the majority of their income to their
exploiter, endure unsafe work and living conditions, and are at times maimed to
increase profits.[32][52] The process of maiming, popularized by the film Slumdog Millionaire,
is common given that according to the Buffalo Human Rights Law Review children
with apparent special needs often make upwards of three times as much as other
children who beg.[33] In addition to inflictions such as blindness and
loss of limbs, other physical abuses for the purposes of heightening profits
include pouring chili pepper on a child’s tongue to give the appearance of
impeded speech, the use of opium to elicit cries, and administering forced
injections of drugs that will increase a child’s energy and alertness.[32] Testimonies against trafficking ring gang leaders
have discussed the detainment of individuals in small cells devoid of food,
water, and light to make victims weak and feeble, and thus more likely to
elicit donations.[41]
The
conditions in which begging takes place commonly expose children to further
physical and verbal abuse, including sexual victimization and police brutality.[32] Research completed by Human Rights Watch revealed
that when begging hours are completed for the day children often do not have
proper shelter, adequate food, or access to healthcare where they reside.[53] Furthermore, many of the gangs which run networks
of forced begging have heavy drug involvement, thus the children under their
control are often turned into drug addicts in order for them to become further
reliant on their exploiters.[32]
Long-term implications
Studies
have shown that children forced into begging primarily receive little to no
education, with upwards of sixteen hours a day dedicated to time on the
streets.[33] With education being a leading method in escaping
poverty child beggars have been shown to engage in a cyclical process of
continuing this practice cross-generationally.[32] Interviews conducted by UNICEF show that children
who beg have little hope for the future and do not believe their circumstances
will improve.[40] Children who work on the streets typically have
little or no knowledge of their rights, leaving them especially susceptible to
exploitation both as juveniles and later as adults.[40] Children who beg have also been found by UNICEF to
have much higher instances of HIV-infection due to lack of awareness and
supervision on the streets.[40]
Solutions
International action
A
victim-centered human rights approach to combating trafficking has been
internationally renowned as the best possible strategy when addressing this
issue, with recourse focusing on punishing the exploiter and rehabilitating the
child.[33] Some countries who emphasize this method include
the United States, with the U.S. Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 affirming
"victims of severe forms of trafficking should not be inappropriately
incarcerated, fined, or otherwise penalized solely for unlawful acts committed
as a direct result of being trafficked.”[54]
Other
supported methods, such as those outlined by the Buffalo Human Rights Law
Review, include relying on three Ps: protection, prosecution, and prevention.[33] Protection starts with enforcing strict measures on
the matters of both trafficking and begging. For many nations the first step is
the criminalization of begging and trafficking.[45] Prosecution should be instituted in the form of
greater legal ramifications for traffickers, with punishment focused on the
exploiter rather than the exploited.[55] This becomes difficult with respect to victims of
familial trafficking, considering this would require changes in care placement
and strict monitoring of each displaced child’s welfare.[32] Many organizations affirm that prevention begins
with discouraging donations and improving services so that children, and families
as a whole, have greater capabilities.[56] Though well intentioned, by giving child beggars
money individuals only make this practice more profitable and soon these funds
find their way into the hands of the child’s abuser.[57]
Government response
In
Senegal, where the abuses against talibes are extensive, there have been
several initiatives with the help of the World Bank to put an end this exploitation. First, there
is intervention on a community level with education on the validity of some of
these Quranic institutions provided to rural villages that typically send their
children there. This is supplemented by improved regulation of schools within
the nation to ensure that they remain places of education, followed by a
greater enforcement of preexisting laws banning trafficking and exploitative
begging. Finally, rehabilitation services have been provided with the help of CSOs to recovered
children to provide them with the capabilities they have been denied.[35]
In
Zimbabwe policy has adapted to ensure the safety of all persons under the age
of sixteen with the Children’s Protection and Adoption Act, however, the
government admits that a lack of resources and capital play a critical role in
inadequate enforcement.[40]
In
Bangladesh, where there are an estimated 700,000 beggars, a law passed in 2009
banning the practice, though officials report some trouble with enforcement.[41]
In
China, the Ministry of Public Security has established a department that solely
focuses on child trafficking. Recently the department has instituted a hotline
where the public dials 110 to report suspected incidences of forced begging,
which law enforcement officials are expected to investigate further. The police
are trained to take the children into custody if a blood relationship with
their guardian cannot be established, and educate parents on the illegality and
dangers of begging if they are those responsible for the child’s action. This
policy instituted in April 2009 has since led to the recovery of 9,300
children.[38]
NGO initiatives
Many
NGOs have initiated movements focusing on informing the public on the dangers
of donations. As recently reported by UNICEF “certain behaviors, such as giving
money to child beggars can also indirectly motivate traffickers and controller
to demand children.”[58] The Mirror Foundation’s Stop Child Begging Project
of Thailand is one such organization that emphasizes eliminating the demand.
Their initiatives are focused on educating passersby on the forced begging of
trafficked Cambodians within their country to decrease the likelihood of
donations.[59]
Other methods
In
China, where the kidnapping and forced begging of children has been routinely
documented, a multi-media movement has begun.[38] Here, blogs are utilized to publicize over 3,000
photos of children whose families believe have been abducted for the purpose of
begging, with hundreds of thousands of followers who remain on the look out for
these children in major urban centers. This campaign has enabled at least six
children to be recovered and reunited with their families.[38]
In
instances where begging is religiously sanctioned it has been suggested by USAid
that religious leaders should outwardly condemn this practice. For talibes
religious leaders have been asked to take a stance against begging using
passages sited in the Quran, such as “Except paradise, you should not beg
anything for the sake of Allah” (8:23), which would help strip the practice of
its religious foundation.[60]
Mechanisms
In
general, child trafficking takes place in three stages: recruitment, movement,
and exploitation.[2][11] Recruitment occurs when a child is approached by a
recruiter, or in some cases, directly approaches a recruiter themselves.[2] Recruitment is initiated in many different ways:
adolescents may be under pressure to contribute to their families, children may
be kidnapped or abducted into trafficking, or families may be trafficked
together.[2] Then, movement will occur - locally, regionally,
and/or internationally - through a variety of transportation types, including
by car, train, boat, or foot.[2] Ultimately, the final goal of child trafficking is
exploitation, whereby traffickers use the services of children to garner
illegal profit.[2] Exploitation can take place in a variety of forms,
including forced labor, sexual exploitation, and child begging, among other
practices.
Supply and demand framework
Child
trafficking is often conceptualized using the economic model of supply and demand.[11][61] Specifically, those who are trafficked constitute
the "supply," while the traffickers, and all those who profit from
the exploitation, provide the "demand."[2] Two types of demand are defined: consumer demand and
derived demand. Consumer demand is generated by people who actively or
passively buy the products or services of trafficked labor.[2] An example of this would be a tourist purchasing a
t-shirt that has been made by a trafficked child. Derived demand, on the other
hand, is generated by people who directly profit from the practice of
trafficking, such as pimps or corrupt factory owners.[2] Scholar Kevin Bales has extensively studied the
application of this economic framework to instances of human trafficking; he
contends that it is central to an accurate understanding of how trafficking is
initiated and sustained.[62] Bales, along with scholars Elizabeth M. Wheaton,
Edward J. Schauer, and Thomas V. Galli, have asserted that national governments
should more actively implement policies that reduce both types of demand, thus
working towards the elimination of trafficking.[63][64]
Social mechanisms
Various
international organizations, including the International Labor
Organization and the United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking
have linked child trafficking to poverty: Living in poverty has been found to
increase children's vulnerability to trafficking.[2][65][66] However, poverty is only one of many social
"risk factors" that can lead to trafficking. As UNICEF
and the World Bank note, "Often children experience several risk
factors at the same time, and one of them may act as a trigger that sets the
trafficking event in motion. This is sometimes called ‘poverty plus,' a
situation in which poverty does not by itself lead to a person being
trafficked, but where a ‘plus’ factor such as illness combines with poverty to
increase vulnerability."[2][67] UNICEF, UN.GIFT and several scholars, including Una Murray and Mike
Dottridge, also contend that an accurate understanding of child trafficking must
incorporate an analysis of gender inequality.[2][68][69] Specifically, in many countries, girls are at a
higher risk of being trafficked, particularly into sexual exploitation.[2][68] In addition, these international agencies and
scholars contend that giving women and men an equal voice in anti-trafficking
policy is critical to reducing the incidence of child trafficking.[68][69]
Prevalence
It
is difficult to obtain reliable estimates concerning the number of children
trafficked each year, primarily due to the covert and criminal nature of this
practice.[2][66] It often takes years to gather and compile
estimates regarding child trafficking and, as a result, data can seem both
inadequate and outdated.[2] This process of gathering data is only complicated
by the fact that very few countries publish national estimates of child
trafficking.[2] As a result, the available statistics are widely
thought to underestimate the actual scope of the problem.[2]
Worldwide
Trafficking
of children has been documented in every region of the world.[1][70] The most reliable figure regarding the prevalence
of this practice is provided by the International Labour
Organization, which estimates that 1.2 million children are
trafficked each year; this estimate includes cross-border and internal
trafficking.[71]
Regional
Regionally,
the International Labour
Organization has provided the following estimates for trafficking of
children by region per year:[71]
- Asia/Pacific: 250,000 children
- Latin America & the Caribbean: 550,000 children
- Africa: 200,000 children
- Transition economies: 200,000 children
- Developed/industrialized economies: n/a
As
the numbers above indicate, child trafficking occurs the most frequently in
Latin America and the Caribbean. Child trafficking is also the most prevalent
in developing countries, though it does occur in developed and industrialized
economies as well.[2][63] Notably, the United States Department of
State publishes an annual "Trafficking in Persons" report
which provides ample data regarding the prevalence of human and child
trafficking in the majority of countries.[63]
History
According
to anthropologist Samuel Pyeatt Menefee, in the late 17th and 18th centuries,
in Britain, parents in poverty "sold their children (actually, their
children's services, but to all intents and purposes their persons as
well)".[72] Sale motivations were more economic than for wife
sales[73] and prices, drawing from limited data, "appear
to have been fairly high."[74] Many of the boys sold were climbing boys for
chimney sweeps until they were no longer small enough.[75] Prostitution was another reason for selling a
child, usually a girl.[76] One sale was of a niece; another was the sale by a
man of the daughter of a woman domestic partner who also ran his business.[76] Some children were stolen and then sold.[77] Purchasing was apparently also done through
"baby-farming operations."[78]
Impacts
Children and families
According
to UN.GIFT, child trafficking has the most significant impact on
trafficked children and their families.[2][79] First, trafficking can result in the death or
permanent injury of the trafficked child.[2] This can stem from a dangerous "movement"
stage of trafficking or from specific aspects of the "exploitation"
stage, such as hazardous working conditions. Moreover, trafficked children are
often denied access to healthcare, effectively increasing their chances of
serious injury and death.[2] Trafficked children are also often subject to
domestic violence; they may be beaten or starved in order to ensure obedience.[2] In addition, these children frequently encounter
substance abuse; they may be given drugs as "payment" or to ensure
that they become addicted and thus dependent on their trafficker(s).[2] As opposed to many other forms of crime, the trauma
experienced by children who are trafficked is often prolonged and repeated,
leading to severe psychological impacts.[79] UN.GIFT reports that trafficked children often suffer from
depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder, among other
conditions.[79]
Effects
on families are also severe. Some families believe that sending or allowing
their children to relocate in order to find work will bring in additional
income, while in reality many families will never see their trafficked children
again.[2] In addition, UN.GIFT has found that certain forms of trafficking,
particularly sexual exploitation in girls, bring "shame" to families.[79] Thus, in certain cases, children who are able to
escape trafficking may return to their families only to find that they are
rejected and ostracized.[79]
Communities
Child
trafficking has also been shown to have a major effect on communities. If
multiple children in a community are trafficked, it can result in the entire
community being corrupted, and thus devastated, by trafficking.[2] Social development efforts are hindered, as
trafficked children's educations are cut short.[2] As a result of this lack of education, children who
escape trafficking may be less able to secure employment later in life.[2] In addition, trafficked girls face special
obstacles, in that their prospects for marriage might be diminished if the
community becomes aware that they have been trafficked, particularly into
sexual exploitation.[2]
Nations
On
a national level, economic development is severely hindered by the lack of
education of trafficked children; this results in a major loss of potentially
productive future workers.[2][79] Children who are able to successfully return to
their families often pose a significant financial burden, due to their lack of
education, and the illnesses and injuries they may have incurred during
trafficking work.[2] There are major costs associated with the
rehabilitation of these trafficked children, so that they are able to
successfully participate in their communities.[2] Furthermore, the persistence of child trafficking
indicates the presence of sustained criminal activity and criminal networks,
which, in most cases, are also associated with drugs and violence.[79] As a result, UN.GIFT has cited child trafficking as a significant indicator
of national and global security threats.[79]
Proposed solutions
Solutions
to child trafficking, or "anti-trafficking actions", can be roughly
classified into four categories:[80]
- Broad protection: "To prevent children and former victims from being (re)trafficked"
- Prevention: "Of the crime of child trafficking and the exploitation that is its end result"
- Law enforcement: "In particular within a labour context and relating to labour laws and regulations"
- Victim assistance: "Covering the kinds of responses necessary to help trafficked children and to reduce their vulnerability to being re-trafficked"
Broad
protection actions are geared towards children who could potentially be
trafficked, and include raising awareness about child trafficking, particularly
in vulnerable communities.[80] This type of outreach also includes policies geared
towards improving the economic statuses of vulnerable families, so that
reasonable alternatives are available to them, other than sending their
children to work.[80] Examples of this include increasing employment
opportunities for adults and conditional cash transfer
programs. Another major broad protection program that has been readily endorsed
by UN.GIFT, the I.L.O, and UNICEF
involves facilitating gender equality, specifically by enhancing both boys' and
girls' access to affordable, quality education.[79][80][81]
Preventative
actions are more focused on addressing the actual practice of child
trafficking, specifically by implementing legal frameworks that are aimed to
both deter and prosecute traffickers.[11][80] This involves the adoption and implementation of
the International Labour
Organization's international labour standards,
as well as the development of safe and legal migration practices.[80]
Law
enforcement refers to the actual prosecution of traffickers; UNICEF
maintains that successful prosecution of child traffickers is the surest way to
send a message that child trafficking will not be tolerated.[80] Traffickers can be "caught" at any one of
the three steps of trafficking: recruitment, movement, and/or exploitation;
anti-trafficking laws as well as child labour laws must then be appropriately enforced. The
development of grassroots "surveillance" systems has also been
suggested by UNICEF which would enable communities to immediately report
signs of child trafficking to legal authorities.[80]
Victim
assistance begins first with victim identification; child trafficking laws must
specifically and appropriately define what constitutes a "trafficking
victim."[80] Legal processes must then be in place for removing
children from trafficking situations, and returning them either to their
families or other appropriate settings.[80] Victims should also be provided with individualized
and supportive physical and psychological rehabilitation.[80] Finally, steps should be taken to avoid
"double victimization" - in other words, to ensure that formerly trafficked
children are treated as victims, and not as criminals.[80] An example of "double victimization"
would be a child who was illegally trafficked into sexual exploitation in the
United States, and then, once free from trafficking, is prosecuted for being an
illegal migrant.
Relevant organizations
Many
organizations have proposed potential solutions to child trafficking. These
organizations continue to conduct research concerning this practice and
policies that can be implemented to work towards its eradication. The most
internationally recognized of these organizations include:
- United Nations[82]
- UNICEF[83]
- Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)[84]
- United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking (UN.GIFT)[85]
- International Labour Organization[86]
- United States Department of State[87]